نشریه علم و تمدن در اسلام
پیاپی 9 (پاییز 1400)

Bilad al-Sudan, which includes southern parts of Sahara Desert, has remained a mysterious and undiscovered land for centuries due to unfavorable climatic and biological conditions, water scarcity, and restrictions on the movement of people from other lands. Even the Islamic rulers did not pay attention to these areas during the conquests of North Africa and did not try to conquer these areas except for some limited campaigns, due to this fact, Islam did not enter these areas and the natives under the desert became acquainted with Islam over time and gradually due to the movement of Muslim businessmen or the migration and residence of some opponents of the government or religious scholars in this area. lack of knowledge about this land is obvious in the works of Muslim geographers - who from the third century have written valuable works in identifying different lands from far or near; For example, the exact area under the desert is not very clear in their works, and they often suffice with vague references to this area and mentioning parts or cities of it. This research, by examining the geographical works of painters until the end of the eighth century, has tried to answer this question that to what extent has the knowledge of geographers been from the sub-desert land? Or that To what extent have their works influenced the portrayal and enlightenment of Muslims in the unknown sub-Saharan region, and what sources did they use in compiling their material, and to what extent is this material true or contradictory based on current information? This research has been done with descriptive analytical approach. The results of assay have proposed that this land due to its weather situation, unrecognized paths and its natives had been less known in compare with north, east and west lands of Africa continent. However, with the expansion of trade, travel, and even the migration of a number of Muslims to these areas, geographic information from the sub-Saharan region also increased.

One controversial subject in the field of Islamic culture and civilization during two last centuries is the theme of change in Persian script. The thought of changing the Persian script has a long history, but in last two hundred years, it has received a lot of attention more than before; Various and sometimes extremist reactions to its developments have been proposed by the Iranian religious communities in the recent years. One of the centers that followed this idea is the Journal of the School of Islam, in which many articles dealing with the issue of changing the line, have been expressed. Two completely different views of proponents and opponents who do not have enough good faith in each other have commented on the issue of changing the Persian script. One of the important comments about the change of line is the discussion of conspiracy against Islam. This issue would damage Islamic concepts and consequently the kind of religiosity of the people; As a result, regarding to technical structure of the debate, their attention was drawn to prove that some people were trying to pursue the issue of changing the line with a pre-planned conspiracy and harming the religion of Islam. The disposition of the school of Islam in the titles and headlines of articles on correction and change of line reveals the malice of the designers of line change. Therefore, this article intends to explain the various views on the subject of changing Persian script in a descriptive-analytical manner and to examine the articles of this magazine and the point of view of its writers, in order to answer one of the important contemporary historical issues of the country.

The ancient heritage of civilization was finally evolved by medieval societies and transferred to modern era. In time division of history of science, Islamic civilization is physical part of history of science. Before Durant and Toynbee, Sarton has described the backgrounds of the course of civilizations in international arena. The function of religion in production of civilization is their common view. Islamic civilization, after its expansion through Maghreb and Andalusia, paved way for transmission of civilization. Orientalists, with phenomenology of Islamic civilization, have formed a paradigm of studies in this field. This research operation was carried out centuries ago by Ibn Khaldun in report of more than nine centuries of human scientific experience in Middle Ages with a new division of science into method and end and separation of knowledge from superstition ignorance. This concept of science in Islamic civilization is the cause of course of classical heritage of science and civilization of Rome, Greece, Alexandria and Iran. This research studies concept of science in the field of nature and basic sciences in Islamic civilization, and according on that, its development and evolution in chemistry will be proposed which is the first step of scientific method in the history of science and scientific revolution in Middle Ages. The supplementary hypothesis of research is that philosophical and religious background and the cause of fertility of Islamic civilization in Middle Ages, is the scientific life of Prophet of Islam, and also the realism in acquiring knowledge and knowledge of Muslims in Middle Ages developed with this attitude to nature and Muhammad (PBUH), was the pioneer of prophets in civilization.

Mathematical geography is one of the sciences that does not have an independent and codified form in the history of Islamic science up to the fifth AH /eleventh century AD and it could be traced in a scattered manner, mainly in astronomical works and the science of the board. Tahdid, Ab al-Rayh n al-B r n 's book is the first case in this field in Islamic civilization, in which almost all the components of mathematical geography are included based on his observational data. One of these main components is determining the geographical coordinate of different positions, which includes latitude and longitude, that has been well researched in this work. The goal of this research is analyzing approaches in calculating latitude of various positions in Tahdid, the book of al-B r n . He has studied the width of different places in three different ways, using general and generalizable rules, which, although in some cases, are not completely innovative; But in terms of presentation method in the history of science in the Islamic era, are very important.

Geodesy science is mentioned as a subset of the precision sciences in the sources of the history of science in the Islamic era and the sources that classify and describe the sciences. This science has a mathematical, computational, geometric and applied essence that has been used in the past, mainly to determine land boundaries, calculate agricultural taxes, astronomical calculations, draw maps and determine and orient roads and places. Geodesy science has received a lot of attention from scholars of Islamic era due to its wide application in the management of society. Imam Fakhreddin Mohammad Razi (543 606 AH / 1149 1210 AD) is one of the scientists of the sixth century AH who pays special attention to exact sciences and surveying science, and mentions it in the encyclopedia of the Jame –al Ulum (Satini) as one of the exact sciences and explains some of the principles of its applications. Attention to triangles is one of the features of Fakhr Razi geodesy Treatise, which shows the division of lands into triangular shapes for surveying. In this research, with the method of library and based on documentary sources, the science of geodesy in Islamic civilization and this chapter in the works of Imam Fakhr Razi have been studied and researched.

Sahar Adnan Khalifa is a well-known Palestinian Muslim writer as one of the flagships of Arab and Palestinian writing. By addressing issues such as Eastern and Palestinian women, as well as the broad concepts of homeland and resilience against oppression and occupation, she emphasizes the original Islamic and religious culture, as well as the East. In his works, what is the Arab and Palestinian man as well as the recognition and definition of women are known as the most important manifestations of identity. Eastern and Palestinian women have different positive and negative faces that show their identity to the same extent, and also when it comes to homeland and stability, she has not taken any steps except in the service of national identity. This paper examines how these identities manifest. This article has been prepared and compiled in a descriptive and analytical manner, and at the same time, it tries to regulate the desired data by using the library method and referring to valid documents. Criticizing the works of Sahar Khalifa, the findings show that despite studying in Western countries, he has never distanced himself from his Islamic and Eastern civilization and culture.